Russia

Russia: History, Geography, Politics, Culture, Economy, Military, and Life in the World’s Largest Country

Russia is one of the most influential, geographically enormous, and historically complex countries in the world. Officially known as the Russian Federation, it stretches across Eastern Europe and northern Asia and covers roughly 17.1 million square kilometers, making it the largest country on Earth by land area.

Russia is simultaneously a European and Asian power. It has enormous natural resources, a large industrial and military base, a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council, and one of the world’s largest nuclear arsenals.

But Russia cannot be understood simply through its current government or its relationship with the West. Its modern identity has been shaped by centuries of empire-building, Orthodox Christianity, Mongol rule, revolution, communism, two world wars, the Soviet Union, the collapse of communism, and the turbulent transformation of the 1990s.

Today, Russia is dominated politically by President Vladimir Putin, while its economy and foreign policy have been heavily influenced by the war in Ukraine, Western sanctions, energy markets, and increasingly close relationships with countries such as China, Iran, North Korea, and other non-Western partners.

1. Basic Facts About Russia

Official name: Russian Federation

Capital: Moscow

Largest city: Moscow

Official language: Russian

Currency: Russian ruble

Area: Approximately 17.1 million km²

Population: More than 143 million according to recent World Bank figures

Government: Federal semi-presidential republic in constitutional form

President: Vladimir Putin

Time zones: Russia spans 11 time zones

Continent: Europe and Asia

Russia shares land borders with 14 countries: Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea.

It also has maritime boundaries and extensive Arctic territory.

The World Bank describes Russia as a high-income country with an industrialized mixed-market economy and exceptionally large deposits of oil, natural gas, coal, gold, nickel and other minerals.

2. Russia’s Geography

Russia’s size is difficult to comprehend.

The country stretches from the Baltic and Black Sea regions in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east.

Its territory contains:

Arctic tundra
enormous forests
grasslands
mountains
deserts
fertile agricultural regions
major river systems
thousands of lakes
extensive Pacific and Arctic coastlines

The famous Siberia occupies much of northern Asia. Siberia is enormous and contains some of the coldest permanently inhabited places on Earth.

The Russian Far East extends all the way to the Pacific and includes Vladivostok, Kamchatka, Sakhalin and numerous remote territories.

Russia also contains a significant portion of the Arctic region.

3. Moscow

Moscow is Russia’s political, economic and cultural center.

The city is famous for:

the Kremlin
Red Square
Saint Basil’s Cathedral
the Bolshoi Theatre
Moscow Metro
Gorky Park
Tretyakov Gallery

Moscow is also one of Europe’s largest metropolitan areas.

The Kremlin is particularly important because it functions as the center of Russia’s federal political power.

4. Saint Petersburg

Saint Petersburg is Russia’s great cultural and imperial city.

It was founded by Peter the Great in 1703 and served as the capital of the Russian Empire for more than two centuries.

The city is famous for:

the Hermitage Museum
Winter Palace
Neva River
canals
Peterhof Palace
Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood

Saint Petersburg is often considered Russia’s window toward Europe because of its architecture, history and connection with European culture.

5. The Origins of Russia

The early history of Russia is complicated.

One of the most important political formations was Kievan Rus, a medieval federation centered around Kyiv.

Kievan Rus developed between the ninth and thirteenth centuries and played an important role in the development of East Slavic civilization.

Christianity became particularly important after Prince Vladimir’s conversion in 988.

This event connected the political and cultural world of Rus with Byzantine Christianity.

Modern Russia, Ukraine and Belarus all draw parts of their historical identity from the heritage of Kievan Rus, although the interpretation of that heritage is politically contested.

6. The Mongol Period

In the thirteenth century, Mongol armies invaded the Rus lands.

Many Russian principalities became tributaries of the Mongol-led Golden Horde.

The period had a profound effect on Russian political development.

Moscow gradually became increasingly powerful.

Moscow’s rulers developed a reputation for political organization, military strength and cooperation with the Mongol authorities.

Eventually, Moscow emerged as the dominant center among the eastern Rus principalities.

7. The Rise of Moscow

During the late medieval period, Moscow expanded its influence.

Ivan III, often called Ivan the Great, was especially important.

In 1480, the symbolic end of Mongol domination helped establish Moscow as an increasingly independent power.

Moscow subsequently developed the idea that it was the successor to the Byzantine Christian tradition.

After Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453, some Russian thinkers promoted the concept of Moscow as the “Third Rome.”

8. Ivan the Terrible

Ivan IV became the first Russian ruler formally crowned as Tsar.

He is commonly known as Ivan the Terrible.

His reign included:

territorial expansion
centralization of power
military campaigns
political repression
the creation of the Oprichnina

Ivan expanded Russia toward the Volga and helped open the way for further expansion into Siberia.

However, his rule was also characterized by extreme violence and political terror.

9. Peter the Great

One of the most important figures in Russian history was Peter the Great.

Peter ruled during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries and attempted to transform Russia into a major European power.

He:

modernized the military
expanded the navy
reformed government institutions
encouraged science and technology
changed elements of Russian society
promoted European-style education
expanded Russian territory

He founded Saint Petersburg and moved the capital there.

His reforms helped turn Russia into one of Europe’s major powers.

10. Catherine the Great

Catherine II, known as Catherine the Great, ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796.

Her reign saw enormous territorial expansion.

Russia gained influence around:

the Black Sea
Poland
the Caucasus
Eastern Europe

Catherine also corresponded with European intellectuals and supported aspects of the Enlightenment.

However, Russia remained a highly unequal society based heavily on serfdom.

11. The Russian Empire

By the nineteenth century, Russia had become one of the world’s largest empires.

The Russian Empire stretched across:

Eastern Europe
the Caucasus
Central Asia
Siberia
the Russian Far East
parts of North America for a period

Russia even controlled Alaska until it sold the territory to the United States in 1867.

The empire was enormously diverse.

Dozens of ethnic groups, languages and religious communities lived within its borders.

12. Russian Literature

Russia produced some of the world’s most influential writers.

Among them are:

Leo Tolstoy

Author of:

War and Peace
Anna Karenina

Fyodor Dostoevsky

Author of:

Crime and Punishment
The Brothers Karamazov
The Idiot

Anton Chekhov

One of the most influential playwrights and short-story writers in world literature.

Alexander Pushkin

Often considered the founder of modern Russian literature.

Nikolai Gogol

A major figure in Russian-language literature and satire.

Russian literature frequently explores themes such as morality, suffering, freedom, faith, social inequality, identity and the human condition.

13. The Russian Revolution

By the beginning of the twentieth century, Russia faced enormous political and economic problems.

The country was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II.

Russia suffered badly during World War I.

In 1917, revolution transformed the country.

The February Revolution forced Nicholas II to abdicate.

Later that year, the Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin seized power during the October Revolution.

The Russian Empire collapsed.

14. The Soviet Union

In 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, commonly known as the Soviet Union or USSR, was established.

The Soviet Union eventually became one of the two principal superpowers of the twentieth century.

Its political system was based on communist ideology and one-party rule.

The Communist Party controlled the state, economy, media and major institutions.

15. Joseph Stalin

After Lenin’s death, Joseph Stalin gradually became the dominant Soviet leader.

Stalin transformed the Soviet Union through:

forced collectivization
rapid industrialization
centralized economic planning
political purges
mass repression

Millions of people died as a result of famine, executions, forced labor, deportations and other forms of repression.

The Gulag system became one of the most infamous components of Stalin’s rule.

16. World War II

World War II is central to modern Russian identity.

The Soviet Union initially signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany in 1939.

Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941.

The Eastern Front became the largest and one of the bloodiest theaters of World War II.

Major battles included:

Moscow
Stalingrad
Kursk
Leningrad
Berlin

The Soviet victory over Nazi Germany came at an enormous human cost.

The Soviet Union lost tens of millions of people during the war.

Victory in World War II remains one of the most important sources of Russian national identity and state propaganda.

17. The Cold War

After World War II, the Soviet Union emerged as a global superpower.

The United States and Soviet Union became ideological and geopolitical rivals.

The Cold War involved:

nuclear weapons
espionage
proxy wars
space exploration
competing economic systems
propaganda
military alliances

The Soviet Union created the Warsaw Pact, while the United States and its allies formed NATO.

18. The Space Race

The Soviet Union achieved several historic milestones in space exploration.

In 1957, it launched Sputnik 1, the world’s first artificial satellite.

In 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to travel into space.

These achievements shocked the United States and demonstrated Soviet technological capabilities.

The Soviet space program became a major source of national prestige.

19. The Collapse of the Soviet Union

By the 1980s, the Soviet economy was experiencing serious structural problems.

Mikhail Gorbachev introduced reforms known as:

Perestroika — restructuring
Glasnost — openness

Political and economic pressures intensified.

Communist governments across Eastern Europe collapsed.

In December 1991, the Soviet Union itself dissolved.

Russia became the principal successor state to the USSR.

20. Russia in the 1990s

The 1990s were chaotic.

Russia transitioned from a centrally planned economy toward capitalism.

The transformation produced:

privatization
inflation
unemployment
poverty
organized crime
political instability
enormous wealth concentration

A group of extremely wealthy businessmen, later known as oligarchs, gained control of major assets.

Boris Yeltsin served as Russia’s president during most of the 1990s.

21. Vladimir Putin

Vladimir Putin became Russia’s dominant political figure around the turn of the century.

He served as:

president
prime minister
president again

Putin has remained the central figure in Russian politics for more than two decades.

His government strengthened federal control, expanded the state’s influence over strategic industries and media, and increasingly emphasized nationalism and traditional Russian identity.

Supporters argue that Putin restored stability and Russian influence after the disorder of the 1990s.

Critics argue that his system has weakened democratic institutions, restricted opposition, concentrated political power and suppressed independent media and civil society.

22. Russia’s Political System

Russia’s constitution describes the country as a federation with elected institutions.

The formal structure includes:

a president
a government
a prime minister
a parliament
courts
regional governments

The parliament is called the Federal Assembly and has two chambers:

State Duma
Federation Council

In practice, however, political power is highly centralized around the presidency and the Kremlin.

Russia’s political environment has become increasingly restrictive, particularly since the invasion of Ukraine in 2022.

23. Russia and Ukraine

No discussion of modern Russia can avoid Ukraine.

In 2014, Russia annexed Crimea following Russia’s military intervention and a disputed referendum.

Russia also supported separatist forces in parts of eastern Ukraine.

In February 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine.

The war became the largest armed conflict in Europe in decades.

It has resulted in:

enormous military casualties
civilian deaths
millions of displaced people
destruction of infrastructure
major economic sanctions
changes to European security policy
increased NATO military cooperation

As of September 2026, the war remains unresolved.

Diplomatic efforts continue, but Russia and Ukraine remain far apart over territory, security guarantees and Ukraine’s future relationship with NATO. Recent U.S.-Russia diplomatic contacts have produced discussions but no decisive breakthrough.

Russian strikes and Ukrainian attacks continue, including long-range attacks against military, energy and infrastructure targets.

24. Russia and the West

Relations between Russia and Western countries deteriorated dramatically after 2014 and especially after the 2022 invasion of Ukraine.

The United States and European countries imposed extensive sanctions on:

Russian banks
energy companies
technology
military industries
individuals
government institutions

Russia responded with restrictions on Western companies and increased economic relationships with non-Western countries.

The result has been one of the biggest geopolitical realignments since the end of the Cold War.

25. Russia and China

China has become extremely important to Russia.

The two countries cooperate in:

energy
trade
military affairs
diplomacy
technology
infrastructure

China has become a major destination for Russian energy exports.

At the same time, Russia is much more dependent on China economically than China is on Russia.

Their relationship is therefore strategically important but not necessarily a traditional military alliance.

26. Russia and Iran

Russia and Iran have developed closer relations in recent years.

Their cooperation includes:

energy
military technology
regional politics
trade
transportation
diplomacy

Both countries also share tensions with the United States and several Western governments.

27. Russia and North Korea

Russia has also developed a much closer relationship with North Korea.

The relationship has expanded particularly since Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.

Military and political cooperation between Moscow and Pyongyang has become an increasingly important feature of Russia’s foreign policy.

This represents a significant change from the relatively limited relationship between the two countries during some earlier periods.

28. Russia’s Economy

Russia has a large and diversified economy, but energy remains extremely important.

Major industries include:

oil
natural gas
coal
metallurgy
mining
chemicals
aerospace
defense
agriculture
machinery
nuclear technology

Russia is one of the world’s major producers and exporters of hydrocarbons.

It is also a major producer of wheat and other agricultural commodities.

The World Bank reports that Russia’s recent economic resilience has been supported partly by military spending and shifts in labor and production, while also warning about inflation, weaker currency conditions, labor shortages, sanctions and supply-chain constraints.

29. Oil and Natural Gas

Energy is one of Russia’s greatest economic advantages.

Major energy companies include:

Gazprom
Rosneft
Lukoil
Novatek

For decades, Russia supplied enormous quantities of natural gas and oil to European countries.

The war in Ukraine dramatically changed those relationships.

Europe has reduced its dependence on Russian energy, while Russia has increasingly redirected exports toward Asia and other markets.

30. Russian Military Power

Russia remains one of the world’s most powerful military states.

Its military capabilities include:

nuclear weapons
ballistic missiles
cruise missiles
submarines
fighter aircraft
bombers
tanks
artillery
drones
electronic warfare
cyber capabilities
space-based systems

Russia inherited much of the Soviet Union’s military infrastructure but has also developed new weapons systems.

31. Nuclear Weapons

Russia is one of the world’s two largest nuclear powers, alongside the United States.

Its nuclear arsenal includes:

land-based missiles
submarine-launched ballistic missiles
strategic bombers
tactical nuclear weapons

Nuclear deterrence is a central part of Russian national-security strategy.

Russia’s nuclear capabilities are one reason its relationship with NATO is considered particularly dangerous.

32. The Arctic

The Arctic is increasingly important to Russia.

Russia possesses the longest Arctic coastline of any country.

The region contains:

oil
natural gas
minerals
shipping routes
military installations

Climate change is also making parts of the Arctic more accessible.

Russia has invested heavily in the Northern Sea Route, which could eventually provide a shorter shipping connection between Europe and Asia.

33. Siberia

Siberia is one of the defining geographical features of Russia.

It contains enormous quantities of:

oil
gas
coal
gold
diamonds
timber
nickel
other minerals

Siberia is also famous for its extreme climate.

Some settlements experience winter temperatures below −40°C.

Yet Siberia is not simply a frozen wasteland.

It contains large cities, universities, industries, forests, rivers and important transportation networks.

34. Lake Baikal

Lake Baikal is one of Russia’s greatest natural treasures.

It is located in southern Siberia.

Baikal is:

the world’s deepest freshwater lake
one of the world’s oldest lakes
home to unique species
an enormous freshwater reservoir

The lake contains the endemic Baikal seal, one of the world’s few freshwater seal species.

35. Russian Culture

Russian culture has had enormous global influence.

It includes:

literature
classical music
ballet
painting
theater
cinema
architecture
philosophy
folk traditions

Russian ballet became internationally famous through institutions such as the Bolshoi and Mariinsky theaters.

36. Russian Music

Russia produced composers such as:

Pyotr Tchaikovsky
Igor Stravinsky
Sergei Rachmaninoff
Modest Mussorgsky
Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov
Dmitri Shostakovich

Tchaikovsky’s works, including Swan Lake, The Nutcracker and Sleeping Beauty, became famous worldwide.

37. Religion

The largest religious tradition in Russia is Eastern Orthodox Christianity.

The Russian Orthodox Church has played a major role in Russian history and national identity.

Russia also has substantial Muslim communities.

Islam is particularly significant in regions such as:

Tatarstan
Bashkortostan
Chechnya
Dagestan

There are also Catholics, Protestants, Buddhists, Jews and people who identify as nonreligious.

38. Russian Food

Russian cuisine is diverse and influenced by the country’s enormous geography.

Famous dishes include:

Borscht

A beet-based soup associated with Eastern Europe.

Pelmeni

Small dumplings filled with meat.

Blini

Thin pancakes often served with sweet or savory toppings.

Pirozhki

Small stuffed pastries.

Olivier salad

A famous Russian-style potato and vegetable salad.

Beef Stroganoff

A dish of beef served with a creamy sauce, now famous internationally.

Tea is also deeply embedded in Russian culture.

39. Everyday Life

Life in Russia varies enormously depending on location.

Living in Moscow can be completely different from living in a remote Siberian settlement.

Major cities offer:

universities
shopping centers
restaurants
public transportation
theaters
modern apartment complexes
technology services

Smaller towns and remote regions can face:

lower wages
limited infrastructure
population decline
harsh weather
fewer employment opportunities

Russia is therefore not a single social experience.

40. Russian Cities

Important cities include:

Moscow — political and economic capital

Saint Petersburg — cultural and historical center

Novosibirsk — major Siberian city

Yekaterinburg — important industrial and cultural center

Kazan — major Tatar and Russian city

Nizhny Novgorod — historic Volga city

Vladivostok — Pacific port

Sochi — Black Sea resort city

Murmansk — major Arctic port

Krasnoyarsk — major Siberian industrial center

41. Education and Science

Russia has a strong scientific and mathematical tradition.

The Soviet Union invested heavily in:

physics
mathematics
engineering
aerospace
nuclear science
military technology

Russian universities and research institutions continue to produce scientists and engineers.

Russian mathematicians, physicists and chemists have made major contributions to global science.

42. Technology

Russia possesses advanced capabilities in several technological areas.

These include:

aerospace
nuclear energy
military technology
mathematics
cybersecurity
artificial intelligence research
satellite technology

However, Russia has faced difficulties obtaining some advanced Western technologies because of sanctions and export controls.

43. Russia’s Space Program Today

Russia remains a major spacefaring nation.

The Soviet Union established the foundation of its space industry.

Modern Russia continues to operate launch systems, satellites and spacecraft.

The country has historically worked with the United States and other nations through international space cooperation, although geopolitical tensions have complicated many relationships.

44. Russian Internet and Media

Russia has a large internet population.

Major Russian-language digital platforms have included:

VK
Yandex
Telegram
Rutube
various domestic news platforms

However, the information environment has become much more restricted since the invasion of Ukraine.

The Russian government has blocked or restricted numerous foreign media organizations and websites and has increased legal pressure on independent journalists.

45. Human Rights and Political Opposition

Russia’s government is heavily criticized by international organizations and human-rights groups over:

restrictions on freedom of expression
political repression
restrictions on demonstrations
pressure on independent media
treatment of opposition politicians
restrictions on civil society organizations
wartime censorship

The Kremlin argues that many of these measures are necessary for national security and protection against foreign interference.

This disagreement is one of the central differences between Russian government narratives and many Western assessments of Russia.

46. Russia and NATO

NATO expansion is one of the most important issues in Russia’s security thinking.

Russian leaders have repeatedly argued that NATO expansion toward Russia threatens Russian national security.

NATO members, meanwhile, argue that sovereign countries have the right to choose their alliances.

The conflict over Ukraine is partly connected to this broader security dispute.

After Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, Finland and Sweden abandoned decades of military non-alignment and joined NATO, fundamentally changing the strategic map of Northern Europe.

47. Russia’s View of the West

Russian official narratives frequently portray the United States and NATO as attempting to weaken or contain Russia.

Western governments generally reject this interpretation and argue that Russia has violated the sovereignty of neighboring countries and used military force to pursue territorial and geopolitical objectives.

Understanding this competing worldview is essential for understanding modern Russian foreign policy.

48. Russian National Identity

Russian identity is complicated.

It can include:

Orthodox Christianity
Russian language
Soviet history
imperial history
World War II victory
literature
Eurasian identity
patriotism
strong-state traditions

Some Russians see Russia primarily as a European civilization.

Others see it as a distinct Eurasian civilization.

Still others emphasize its multinational character.

There is no single Russian identity shared equally by everyone.

49. Is Russia European or Asian?

The answer is: both, geographically and historically.

Most of Russia’s population lives in the European portion of the country.

Moscow and Saint Petersburg are European cities.

But most of Russia’s territory lies in Asia.

Siberia and the Russian Far East occupy an enormous part of the country’s landmass.

Russia therefore sits between Europe and Asia both geographically and culturally.

50. Why Russia Is So Large

Russian territorial expansion happened over several centuries.

Moscow expanded:

northward
eastward into Siberia
southward toward the Caucasus
toward Central Asia
toward the Pacific

Siberia was especially important because Russia could expand across enormous territories with relatively low population density.

This expansion ultimately created the world’s largest country.

51. Russia’s Greatest Strengths

Russia’s major strategic advantages include:

enormous territory
large population
nuclear weapons
natural resources
energy production
agricultural capacity
military-industrial capabilities
scientific expertise
geographic depth
permanent UN Security Council membership
extensive diplomatic relationships

Few countries possess such a combination.

52. Russia’s Major Weaknesses

Russia also faces significant challenges.

These include:

demographic decline
aging population
labor shortages
dependence on commodities
sanctions
technological restrictions
regional inequality
corruption
infrastructure problems
dependence on state spending
political centralization
economic isolation from some major markets

The World Bank specifically identifies state dominance, weak competition, skills shortages and limited global integration as structural economic challenges.

53. The Russian Economy Under Sanctions

One of the most interesting aspects of modern Russia is that its economy did not collapse after the massive sanctions imposed following the 2022 invasion.

Instead, Russia adapted through:

redirecting energy exports
increasing trade with China and India
expanding domestic production
increasing military spending
importing through alternative countries
developing alternative financial channels

However, economic resilience does not mean that sanctions have had no effect.

Russia faces higher costs, reduced access to some technologies, labor shortages and greater dependence on a smaller number of international partners.

54. The Russian Military-Industrial Economy

The war in Ukraine dramatically increased Russian military production.

Factories have expanded production of:

artillery ammunition
missiles
drones
armored vehicles
electronic warfare equipment

Military expenditure has become an important component of economic activity.

This can increase short-term industrial output while creating long-term problems if civilian investment and productivity suffer.

55. Russia’s Relationship With Europe

Russia and Europe have centuries of cultural and economic connections.

Before the Ukraine war, Europe was one of Russia’s most important economic partners.

Energy was particularly important.

Germany, Italy, France and other European countries maintained extensive economic relationships with Russia.

The war fundamentally changed this relationship.

Europe has sought to reduce dependence on Russian fossil fuels and strengthen its defense capabilities.

56. Russia’s Future

Russia’s future is difficult to predict.

Several possibilities exist.

Scenario 1: Continued confrontation

Russia could maintain a long-term strategic confrontation with Europe and the United States while strengthening relations with China and other non-Western countries.

Scenario 2: A negotiated settlement in Ukraine

A political settlement could eventually reduce tensions, although the details of territory and security guarantees would remain extremely difficult.

Scenario 3: Economic restructuring

Russia could attempt to reduce dependence on hydrocarbons and invest more heavily in technology, manufacturing and domestic innovation.

Scenario 4: Greater dependence on China

If relations with Europe remain poor, Russia may become increasingly economically dependent on China.

Scenario 5: Political transition

Eventually, Russia will have to experience another leadership transition. The timing and nature of that transition are impossible to predict with confidence.

57. Russia in 2026

Russia in 2026 is fundamentally different from Russia before 2022.

The Ukraine war remains the defining geopolitical issue.

Recent diplomatic contacts between Russia and U.S. representatives have attempted to revive negotiations, but major disagreements remain, particularly regarding territory and Ukraine’s security alignment.

The war also continues to affect Russian society directly. Drone attacks have reached Russian territory, while concerns about mobilization and the economic consequences of the prolonged conflict remain significant.

Russia is simultaneously attempting to maintain its military campaign, sustain economic production, strengthen relationships outside the West and preserve its status as a major global power.

58. Interesting Facts About Russia

Here are some facts that demonstrate the extraordinary scale and diversity of the country:

Russia is the largest country in the world by area.
It spans 11 time zones.
Russia contains enormous Arctic territory.
Lake Baikal is the world’s deepest freshwater lake.
Russia has one of the world’s largest nuclear arsenals.
Moscow is one of Europe’s largest metropolitan areas.
Russia was the first country to send a human into space.
Russia once controlled Alaska.
The Trans-Siberian Railway is one of the world’s longest railway routes.
Siberia contains enormous natural-resource reserves.
Russia is one of the world’s major wheat exporters.
Russian literature has influenced writers worldwide.
Russian classical ballet is internationally famous.
The country contains dozens of ethnic groups and languages.
Russia has both European and Asian geographic identities.

59. Russia Is More Than Vladimir Putin

One of the biggest mistakes people make when discussing Russia is treating the country and its government as exactly the same thing.

Russia is a country of more than 140 million people with:

different political opinions
different ethnic identities
different religions
different economic circumstances
different regional cultures
different attitudes toward the government
different views of the West and Ukraine

The Kremlin is the political center of the Russian state, but Russian society is much larger and more complicated than the government.

60. Final Perspective

Russia is one of the few countries whose history can genuinely be described as global in scale.

It was once the center of a vast empire, became the world’s first communist superpower, defeated Nazi Germany at an enormous human cost, launched the first human into space, possessed one of the world’s largest nuclear arsenals and emerged from the collapse of the Soviet Union as a very different state.

Today, Russia remains a major military, nuclear, energy and geopolitical power.

At the same time, it faces serious challenges involving demographics, economic diversification, technological access, political institutions and its increasingly complicated relationship with Europe and the United States.

The most useful way to understand Russia is therefore not as simply “good” or “bad,” “European” or “Asian,” “communist” or “capitalist,” or “Putin’s country.”

Russia is a vast and diverse civilization shaped by empire, Christianity, revolution, communism, war, nationalism, geography and centuries of interaction between Europe and Asia.

Its future will have consequences far beyond its borders.